Astrometry and geodesy with radio interferometry: experiments, models, results

Interferometry at radio frequencies between Earth-based receivers separated by intercontinental distances has made significant contributions to astrometry and geophysics during the past three decades. Analyses of such very long baseline interferometric (VLBI) experiments now permit measurements of relative positions of points on the Earth’s surface and of angles between celestial objects at levels of better than one cm and one nanoradian, respectively. The relative angular positions of extragalactic radio sources inferred from this technique presently form the best realization of an inertial reference frame. This review summarizes the current status of radio interferometric measurements for astrometric and geodetic applications. It emphasizes the theoretical models that are required to extract results from the VLBI observables at present accuracy levels. An unusually broad cross section of physics contributes to the required modeling. Both special and general relativity need to be considered in properly formulating the geometric part of the propagation delay. While high-altitude atmospheric charged-particle (ionospheric) effects are easily calibrated for measurements employing two well-separated frequencies, the contribution of the neutral atmosphere at lower altitudes is more difficult to remove. In fact, mismodeling of the troposphere remains the dominant error source. Plate tectonic motions of the observing stations need to be taken into account, as well as the nonpointlike intensity distributions of many sources. Numerous small periodic and quasiperiodic tidal effects also make important contributions to space geodetic observables at the centimeter level, and some of these are just beginning to be characterized. Another area of current rapid advances is the specification of the orientation of the Earth’s spin axis in inertial space: nutation and precession. Highlights of the achievements of very long baseline interferometry are presented in four areas: reference frames, Earth orientation, atmospheric effects on microwave propagation, and relativity. The order-of-magnitude improvement of accuracy that was achieved during the last decade has provided essential input to geophysical models of the Earth’s internal structure. Most aspects of VLBI modeling are also directly applicable to interpretation of other space geodetic measurements, such as active and passive ranging to Earth-orbiting satellites, interplanetary spacecraft, and the Moon.